Monarch Butterfly
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Monarch  butterfly facts  (Danaus plexippus) is a milkweed butterfly(subfamily Danainae), in the family Nymphalidae. It is perhaps the best known of all North American butterflies. Since the 19th century, it has been found in New Zealand, and in Australia since 1871 where it is called the Wanderer.^[3][4][5] It is resident in the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira, and is found as an occasional migrant in Western Europe and a rare migrant in the United Kingdom where it is called the Milkweed [1]. Its wings feature an easily recognizable orange and black pattern, with a wingspan of 8.9–10.2 centimetres(3½–4 in).^[6] (The Viceroy butterfly facts  has a similar size, color, and pattern, but can be distinguished by an extra black stripe across the hind wing.) Female Monarch butterfly migration http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/60392.html ” target=”_blank” > monach butterfly migration have darker veins on their wings, and the males have a spot called the ”androconium” in the center of each hind wing^[7] from which pheromones are released. Males are also slightly larger. 

The monach butterfly migration  is famous for its southward migration and northward return in summer from Canada to Mexico and Baja California which spans the life of three to four generations of the butterfly facts. 

Taxaony

The common name “Monarch” was first published in 1874 by Samuel H. Scudder because “it is one of the largest of our butterflies, and rules a vast domain”^[8]; however, the name may be in honour of KingWilliam III of England.^[9] The Monarch was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758. It was first placed in the genus Papilio.^[10] In 1780, Jan Krzysztof Klukused the Monarch as the type species for a new genus; Danaus.Danaus (Greek Δαναός) was a mythical king of Egypt and great-grandson of Zeus, and the species name, plexippus, refers to a man named Plexippus, of which there were several in Greek mythology. Since the species name and the genus name must agree in gender it has been suggested that Danaus is a masculinised version of Danaë (Greek Δανάη), Danaus’s great-great-granddaughter, to whom Zeus came as a shower of gold, which seems a more appropriate source for the name of this butterfly facts [11] In Homeric Greek δαναος πληξιππος also means “a Greek^{[dubious – discuss]} who beats (= lashes, drives and urges on) horses”, i.e. “Greek charioteer“.  The monach butterfly migration  is closely related to two very similar species which formed the Danaus (Danaus) subgenus before 2005. The first is the Jamaican monarch (D. cleophile) from Jamaica and Hispaniola. The second is the Southern Monarch (D. erippus), of South America south of the Amazon river. The Southern monach butterfly migration  is almost indistinguishable from the monach butterfly migration  as an adult, the pupae are somewhat different, and is often considered a subspecies of the monach butterfly migration proper. But analysis of morphological, mtDNA 12S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, nuclear DNA 18S rRNA and EF1subunit α sequence data by Smith et al. (2005) indicates that it is better considered a distinct species. The separation of the monach butterfly migration  and Southern monach butterfly migration  is comparatively recent. In all likelihood, the ancestors of the Southern monach butterfly migration  separated from the Monarch’s population some 2 mya, at the end of the Pliocene. At the time sea levels were higher and the entire Amazonas lowland was a vast expanse of brackish swamp that offered hardly any butterfly facts habitat.[12]

Following the review of Smith et al. (2005), two sub-species of the Monarch are recognized:^[12]

• Danaus p. plexippus, the nominate subspecies, described by Linnaeus in 1758. It is the migratory subspecies known from most of North America.
• Danaus p. megalippe, named in 1826 by Jacob Hübner. It is the non-migratory subspecies, and is found from Floridaand Georgia southwards, throughout the Caribbean and Central America to the Amazon River. Three local formswere at first considered to be other subspecies, but are actually colour varieties of D. p. megalippe:
  • D. p. m. forma leucogyne, named by Arthur G. Butler in 1884.
  • D. p. m. forma portoricensis, named in 1941 by A.H. Clark.
  • D. p. m. forma tobagi, also named in 1941 by A.H. Clark.

Monarchs are especially noted for their lengthy annual migration. In North America they make massive southward migrations starting in August until the first frost. A northward migration takes place in the spring. The monach butterfly migration  is the only butterfly facts that migrates both north and south as the birds do on a regular basis. But no single individual makes the entire round trip. Female monarchs deposit eggs for the next generation during these migrations.[20]

By the end of October, the population east of the Rocky Mountainsmigrates to the sanctuaries of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reservewithin the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests in the Mexican states of Michoacán and México. The western population overwinters in various sites in central coastal and southern California, United States, notably in Pacific Grove and Santa Cruz.

The length of these journeys exceeds the normal lifespan of most monarchs, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The last generation of the summer enters into a non-reproductive phase known as diapause and may live seven months or more.^[7] During diapause, butterflies fly to one of many overwintering sites. The generation that overwinters generally does not reproduce until it leaves the overwintering site sometime in February and March.

It is thought that the overwinter population of those east of the Rockies may reach as far north as Texas and Oklahoma during the spring migration. It is the second, third and fourth generations that return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring. How the species manages to return to the same overwintering spots over a gap of several generations is still a subject of research; the flight patterns appear to be inherited, based on a combination of the position of the sun in the sky^[21] and a time-compensated Sun compass that depends upon acircadian clock that is based in their antennae.^[22][23] New research has also shown that monach butterfly migration  butterflies can use the earth’s magnetic field for orientation. The antennae contain cryptochrome a photoreceptor protein that is sensitive to the violet-blue part of the spectrum. In the presence of violet or blue light it can function as a chemical compass, which tells the animal if it is aligned with the earths magnetic field, but it is unable to tell the difference between the magnetic North or South. The complete magnetical sense is present in a single antenna.^[24][25]  monach butterfly migration  butterflies are one of the few insects capable of making trans-Atlantic crossings. They are becoming more common in Bermuda due to increased usage of milkweed as an ornamental Butterfly plants in flower gardens. monach butterfly migration  butterflies born in Bermuda remain year round due to the island’s mild climate. A few monarchs turn up in the far southwest of Great Britain in years when the wind conditions are right, and have been sighted as far east as Long Bennington. In Australia, Monarchs make limited migrations in cooler areas,^[3] but the Blue Tiger butterfly facts is better known in Australia for its lengthy migration.[4] Monarchs can also be found in New Zealand. On the islands of Hawaii no migrations have been noted. monach butterfly migration  butterflies are poisonous or distasteful to birds and mammals because of the presence of cardiac glycosidesthat are contained in milkweed consumed by the larva. It is thought that the bright colors of larvae and adults function aswarning colors. During hibernation monach butterfly migration  butterflies sometimes suffer losses because hungry birds pick through them looking for the butterflies with the least amount of poison, but in the process killing those that they reject. A recent study examined wing colors of migrating monarchs using computer image analysis and found migrants had darker orange (reddish colored) wings than breeding monarchs.[26]

^Habitat
The monach butterfly migration  can be found in a wide range of  butterfly habitat such as fields, meadows, prairie remnants, urban and suburban parks, gardens, and roadsides. It overwinters in conifer groves.[28]  

 ^{Adult Food Sources}

Adult Monarchs have been seen on a number of different nectar Butterfly plants . A list of nectar-resources exploited by monach butterfly migration  butterflies is as follows:

•  Apocynum cannabinum - Indian Hemp
• Asclepias californica - California Milkweed
• Asclepias incarnata - Swamp Milkweed
• Asclepias syriaca - Common Milkweed
• Asclepias tuberosa - 

  butterfly facts 

  Weed

•  Aster sp. – asters
• Cirsium sp. – thistles
• Daucus carota - Wild Carrot
• Dipsacus sylvestris - Teasel
• Erigeron canadensis - Horseweed
• Eupatorium maculatum - Spotted Joe-Pye Weed
• Eupatorium perfoliatum - Common Boneset
• Hesperis matronalis - Dame’s Rocket
• Medicago sativa - Alfalfa
• Solidago sp. – golden rods
• Syringa vulgaris - Lilac
• Trifolium pratense - Red Clover
• Vernonia altissima - Tall Ironweed^[29]

ales will also take in moisture and minerals from damp soil and wet gravel, a behavior known as mud-puddling. The hhhMonarch has also been noticed puddling at an oil stain on pavement.^[29]

Reproduction

The mating period for the overwinter population occurs in the spring, just prior to migration from the overwintering sites. The courtship is fairly simple and less dependent on chemical pheromones in comparison with other species in its genus.^[30] Courtship is composed of two distinct stages, the aerial phase and the ground phase. During the aerial phase, the male pursues, nudges, and eventually takes down the female. Copulation occurs during the ground phase where the male and female remain attached for about 30 to 60 minutes.^[31] A spermatophore is transferred from the male to the female. Along with sperm, the spermatophore is thought to provide the female with energy resources that aid her in carrying out reproduction and remigration. The overwinter population returns only as far north as they need to go to find the early milkweed growth; in the case of the eastern butterflies that is commonly southern Texas. The butterfly life cycle of a monach butterfly migration  includes a change of form called complete metamorphosis. The monach butterfly migration  goes through four radically different stages:

1. The eggs are laid by the females during spring and summer breeding months. The eggs are laid onto the leaves of milkweed 

   Butterfly plants 

   .[32]

2. The eggs hatch (after 4 days), revealing worm-like larvae, the caterpillars. The caterpillars consume their egg cases, then feed on milkweed, and sequester substances calledcardenolides, a type of cardiac glycoside. During the caterpillar stage, monarchs store energy in the form of fatand nutrients to carry them through the non-feeding pupa stage. The caterpillar stage lasts around 2 weeks.
3. In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig, leaf, etc., and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a ‘J’, and then molts, leaving itself encased in an articulated green exoskeleton. At this point, hormonal changes occur, leading to the development of a 

   butterfly facts

   
   (metamorphosis). The chrysalis darkens (the exoskeleton becomes transparent) a day before it emerges, and its orange and black wings can be seen.

4. The mature 

   butterfly facts 

   emerges after about two pupal weeks and hangs from the split chrysalis for several hours until its wings are dry (often in the morning). Meanwhile fluids are pumped into the crinkled wings until they become full and stiff. Some of this orangey fluid (called meconium) drips from the wings. Finally (usually in the afternoon) the 

   monach butterfly migration  

   spreads its wings, quivers them to be sure they are stiff, and then flies away, to feed on a variety of flowers, including milkweed flowers, red clover, and goldenrod. Monarchs can live a life of two to eight weeks in a garden having their host  Asclepias 

   Butterfly plants 

   and sufficient flowers for nectar. This is especially true if the flower garden happens to be surrounded by native forest that seems to be lacking in flowers.^[ citation needed]

 
^{Pictitorial Life Cycle}

Host Plants

 Here is a list of host plants used by the monach butterfly migration  caterpillar:

  Asclepias amplexicaulis - Clasping Milkweed

• Asclepias asperula - Antelope Horns
• Asclepias californica - California Milkweed
• Asclepias cordifolia - Heart-leaf Milkweed
• Asclepias curassavica - Scarlet Milkweed
• Asclepias curtissii - Curtiss’ Milkweed
• Asclepias eriocarpa - Woollypod Milkweed
• Asclepias erosa - Desert Milkweed
• Asclepias exaltata - Poke Milkweed
• Asclepias fascicularis - Narrow-leaf Milkweed
• Asclepias humistrata - Sandhill Milkweed
• Asclepias incarnata - Swamp Milkweed
• Asclepias linaria - Pine-needle Milkweed
• Asclepias meadii - Mead’s Milkweed
• Asclepias nivea - Caribbean Milkweed
• Asclepias physocarpa - Swan 

  Butterfly plants

•  Asclepias purpurascens - Purple Milkweed
• Asclepias speciosa - Showy Milkweed
• Asclepias subulata - Rush Milkweed
• Asclepias subverticillata - Horsetail Milkweed
• Asclepias syriaca - Common Milkweed
• Asclepias tuberosa - 

  butterfly facts 

  Weed

•  Asclepias verticillata - Whorled Milkweed
• Calotropis gigantea - Crown Flower
• Calotropis procera - Apple of Sodom
• Cynanchum laeva - Sand Vine
• Sarcostemma clausa - White Vine^[18][19]
  

Defense Against Preadorts

Monarchs are foul-tasting and poisonous due to the presence ofcardenolide aglycones in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed.^[30] Both forms advertise their unpalatability with bright colors and areas of high contrast on the skin or wings. This phenomenon is known as aposematism.

Monarchs also contain cardiac glycosides in their bodies from theAsclepias Butterfly plants that the caterpillars eat. Overwintering Monarchs in Mexico are often preyed upon by Black-headed Grosbeaks which are immune to that toxin. Other birds such as orioles and jays have learned to eat only the thoracic muscles and abdominal contents because these contain less poison than the rest of the body.^[19] Some mice are also able to withstand large doses of the poison. Over time, overwintering adults become less poisonous, thus making them more vulnerable to predators. In Mexico, about 14% of the overwintering Monarchs are eaten by birds and mice.^[28]

Monarchs share this defense with the similar-appearing viceroy butterfly facts , in an example of Müllerian mimicry. (Viceroys were at one time believed to beBatesian mimics of monarchs.)^[27]

^{Relationship with Human}

The monach butterfly migration  is the state insect of Alabama,^[33] Idaho,^[34] Illinois,^[35] Minnesota,^[36] Texas,^[37] and the state butterfly facts  of Vermont^[38] and West Virginia.^[39] It was nominated in 1990 as the national insect of the United States of America, along with the honeybee (Apis mellifera),^[40] but the legislation did not pass.^[41]  Many people like to attract monarchs by growing a butterfly facts garden with a specific milkweed species. Others enjoy raising them for pleasure or for educational purposes. For migrating flocks, sanctuaries have been created at favorite wintering locations,^[42] and these migrations can generate significant tourism revenue. Many schools also enjoy growing, and attending to monach butterfly migration  butterflies, starting with the caterpillar form. When the butterflies reach adulthood they are then released into the wild.[43] Some organizations, such as the Cape May Bird Observatory, have monach butterfly migration  identification tagging programs. Plastic stickers are placed on the wing of the insect with identification information. Tracking information is used to study the migration patterns of monarchs, including how far and where they fly.[44]

The main villain on The Venture Bros. (a cartoon on the Adult Swim block of Cartoon Network) takes his name, costume and overall lifestyle from monach butterfly migration  butterflies.

Threats
Recent illegal deforestation of the monarch’s overwintering grounds have led to a drastic reduction in the butterfly facts ‘s population. Efforts to classify it as a protected species and to restore its butterfly habitat are under way. 

Predators

Although monarchs feed on milkweed, variations in the quantity of cardiac glycosides exist between species, individuals and even parts of the host Butterfly plants . The levels of toxins in adult monarchs reflect the levels in their host 

Butterfly plants 

. This means some monarchs are not foul-tasting but are  Batesian or auto-mimics. Some species of predators have learned to measure the toxins by taste and reject butterflies with high cardiac glycosides contents, eating only the ones with low cardiac glycosides contents. In the butterfly facts , the cardiac glycosides are concentrated in the abdomen and wings. Some species of predators differentiate these parts and consume only the most palatable ones.[45] Bird predators includeBrown Thrashers, Grackles, Robins, Cardinals, Sparrows, Scrub Jays and Pinyon Jays.^[45]

 

In North America, eggs and first instar larvae of the hhhmonarch are eaten by larvae and adults of the introduced Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis).^[46]

White morph of the monarch in Hawaii

On Oahu, a white morph of the monach butterfly migration  has emerged. This is because of the introduction, in 1965 and 1966, of two bulbul species, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus. They are now the most common insectivore birds, and probably the only ones preying on insects as big as the 

monach butterfly migration  

. Monarchs in Hawaii are known to have low cardiac glycoside levels, but the birds may also be tolerant for the chemical. The two species hunt the larvae and some pupae from the branches and underside of leaves in milkweed bushes. The bulbuls also eat resting and ovipositing adults, but rarely flying ones. Because of its colour the white morph has a higher survival rate than the orange one. This is either because ofapostatic selection (i.e. the birds have learned the orange monarchs can be eaten), because of camouflage (the white morph matches the white pubescence of milkweed or the patches of light shining through foliage), or because the white morph does not fit the bird’s search image of a typical 

monach butterfly migration  

, and is thus avoided.[47]

 

Parasites

Parasites include the tachinid flies Sturmia convergens^[48] and Lesperia archippivora. Lesperia-parasitized larvae complete their moult, suspend, but die before pupation. At that time one white maggot comes out of the larvae, suspended by a silken thread. The maggot then forms a brown pupa on the ground.^[49]

The bacteria Micrococcus flacidifex danai also infects the larvae and causes “black death”. As usual, just before pupation the larvae migrate to a horizontal surface. They die a few hours later, attached only by one pair of prolegs, thorax and abdomen hanging limp. The body turns black shortly after. The bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no invasive powers, but causes secondary infections in weakened insects. It is a common cause of death in laboratory reared insects.^[49]

The protozoan Ophryocystis elektroscirrha is another parasite of the monach butterfly migration  . It infects the subcutaneous tissues&nb monach butterfly migration  sp;and propagates by spores formed during the pupal stage. The spores are found over all of the body of infected butterflies, with the greatest number on the abdomen. These spores are passed, from female to caterpillar, when spores rub off during egg-laying and are then ingested by caterpillars. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have a shortened lifespan but probably occur at low frequencies in nature. This is not the case in laboratory or commercial rearing, where after a few generations all individuals can be infected.^[50]

Confusion of Host Plant

^{A problem in North America is the black swallow-wort} Butterfly plants . Monarchs lay their  eggs on these plants since they produce stimuli similar to milkweed. Once the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are poisoned by the toxicity of this invasive plant. Genetically Modified Butterfly Plants the 

monach butterfly migration  

formed the subject of a controversial paper in   Nature that suggested that pollen from genetically  modified maize could blow onto the butterfly facts ‘s favored food plant,  Asclepias (milkweed), increasing larval mortality.^[51] However, it has been generally accepted by the scientific community that this has still not been proven.^{[52]
Geome
A 273-million basepair draft sequence of the} 

monach butterfly migration  

 

butterfly facts 

genome was published in 2011, including a set of 16,866 protein-coding genes. Comparison to the sequence of the silk moth  Bombyx mori reveals that Lepidoptera is a relatively fast-evolving order. The monarch genome provides a number of insights into the 

butterfly’sfacts

 migratory behavior, including the molecular underpinnings of the circadian clock and juvenile hormone pathway, as well as a suite of microRNAs that are differentially expressed between summer and migratory monarchs.[53]^{[54][55]
See Also} 

• Mimicry
• Aposematism
• Lepidoptera migration
• List of butterflies of Great Britain
• Peninsula Point Light, Michigan
• Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve

External Links

• [2] Raise Live Butterflies at http://www.butterflygardenhabitat.com
• Monarch website of The Reppert Laboratory at the University of Massachusetts Medical School.
• Photos and satellite images of monarch butterfly habitat, from USGS
• Australian Museum fact sheet on Monarch butterflies
• Monarch Migration Maps
• Monarch Watch of the University of Kansas Entomology Department
• USGS description of Monarch butterfly
• Monarch Health!
• More Than Monarchs
• Monarch butterfly on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
• Monarch, Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility
• A route of Monarch Migration on GPSed.com
• PBS NOVA Documentary “The Incredible Journey of the Butterflies”
• Monarch egg eclosion
• MonarchBase

Butterfly

 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mating Common Buckeye Butterflies

It is a popular belief that butterflies have very short life spans. However, butterflies in their adult stage can live from a week to nearly a year depending on the species. Many species have long larval life stages while others can remain dormant in their pupal or egg stages and thereby survive winters.^[2] Butterflies may have one or more broods per year. The number of generations per year varies fromtemperate to tropical regions with tropical regions showing a trend towards multivoltinism.

Eggs

Egg of Ariadne merione

Butterfly eggs are protected by a hard-ridged outer layer of shell, called the chorion. This is lined with a thin coating of wax which prevents the egg from drying out before the larva has had time to fully develop. Each egg contains a number of tiny funnel-shaped openings at one end, calledmicropyles; the purpose of these holes is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg. butterfly facts and moth eggs vary greatly in size between species, but they are all either spherical or ovate. 

Butterfly eggs are fixed to a leaf with a special glue which hardens rapidly. As it hardens it contracts, deforming the shape of the egg. This glue is easily seen surrounding the base of every egg forming a meniscus. The nature of the glue is unknown and is a suitable subject for research. The same glue is produced by a pupa to secure the setae of the cremaster. This glue is so hard that the silk pad, to which the setae are glued, cannot be separated. Eggs are almost invariably laid on butterfly plants . Each species of butterfly facts has its own host

butterfly plants 

range and while some species of 

butterfly facts 

are restricted to just one species of 

butterfly plants 

, others use a range of 

butterfly plants 

species, often including members of a common family. The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies but eggs laid close to winter, especially in temperate regions, go through a diapause(resting) stage, and the hatching may take place only in spring. Other butterflies may lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch in the summer. These butterflies are usually northern species, such as the Mourning Cloak (Camberwell Beauty) and the Large and SmallTortoiseshell butterflies. aterpillars

 

 

 

Caterpillars of Junonia coenia.

Butterfly larvae, or caterpillars, consume butterfly plants leaves and spend practically all of their time in search of food. Although most caterpillars are herbivorous, a few species such as  Spalgis epiusand Liphyra brassolis are entomophagous (insect eating). Some larvae, especially those of the Lycaenidae, form mutual associations with ants. They communicate with the ants using vibrations that are transmitted through the substrate as well as using chemical signals.^[3][4] The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions.

Caterpillars mature through a series of stages called instars. Near the end of each instar, the larva undergoes a process called apolysis, in which the cuticle, a tough outer layer made of a mixture ofchitin and specialized proteins, is released from the softer epidermis beneath, and the epidermis begins to form a new cuticle beneath. At the end of each instar, the larva moults the old cuticle, and the new cuticle expands, before rapidly hardening and developing pigment. Development of Butterfly facts wing patterns begins by the last larval instar. 

Butterfly caterpillars have three pairs of true legs from the thoracic segments and up to 6 pairs of prolegs arising from the abdominal segments. These prolegs have rings of tiny hooks called crochets that help them grip the substrate.

Some caterpillars have the ability to inflate parts of their head to appear snake-like. Many have false eye-spots to enhance this effect. Some caterpillars have special structures called osmeteria which are everted to produce smelly chemicals. These are used in defense. Host butterfly plants often have toxic substances in them and caterpillars are able to sequester^{[disambiguation needed ]} these substances and retain them into the adult stage. This helps making them unpalatable to birds and other predators. Such unpalatibility is advertised using bright red, orange, black or white warning colours. The toxic chemicals in 

butterfly plants 

are often evolved specifically to prevent them from being eaten by insects. Insects in turn develop countermeasures or make use of these toxins for their own survival. This “arms race” has led to the coevolution of insects and their host 

butterfly plants 

.[5]

 

Wing development

Last instar wing disk, Junonia coenia

Detail of a butterfly wing

Wings or wing pads are not visible on the outside of the larva, but when larvae are dissected, tiny developing wing disks can be found on the second and third thoracic segments, in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments. Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing, and are surrounded by a thin peripodial membrane, which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct.

Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar, when they increase dramatically in size, are invaded by branching tracheae from the wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins, and begin to develop patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing.

Near pupation, the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the hemolymph, and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile, by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of the pupa (in obtect pupae). Within hours, the wings form a cuticle so hard and well-joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings.

Pupa

Chrysalis of Gulf Fritillary

When the larva is fully grown, hormones such as prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) are produced. At this point the larva stops feeding and begins “wandering” in the quest of a suitable pupation site, often the underside of a leaf. The larva transforms into a pupa (or chrysalis) by anchoring itself to a substrate and moulting for the last time. The chrysalis is usually incapable of movement, although some species can rapidly move the abdominal segments or produce sounds to scare potential predators. The pupal transformation into a butterfly facts through metamorphosis has held great appeal to mankind. To transform from the miniature wings visible on the outside of the pupa into large structures usable for flight, the pupal wings undergo rapid mitosis and absorb a great deal of nutrients. If one wing is surgically removed early on, the other three will grow to a larger size. In the pupa, the wing forms a structure that becomes compressed from top to bottom and pleated from proximal to distal ends as it grows, so that it can rapidly be unfolded to its full adult size. Several boundaries seen in the adult color pattern are marked by changes in the expression of particular transcription factors in the early pupa. 

 Adult or imago

The adult, sexually mature, stage of the insect is known as the imago. As Lepidoptera, butterflies have four wings that are covered with tiny scales (see photo). The fore and hindwings are not hooked together, permitting a more graceful flight. An adult butterfly facts has six legs, but in the nymphalids, the first pair is reduced. After it emerges from its pupal stage, a butterfly facts cannot fly until the wings are unfolded. A newly emerged 

butterfly facts 

needs to spend some time inflating its wings with blood and letting them dry, during which time it is extremely vulnerable to predators. Some butterflies’ wings may take up to three hours to dry while others take about one hour. Most butterflies and moths will excrete excess dye after hatching. This fluid may be white, red, orange, or in rare cases, blue. 

 

External Morphology

Adult butterflies have four wings: a forewing and hindwing on both the left and the right side of the body. The body is divided into three segments: the head, thorax, and the abdomen. They have two antennae, two compound eyes, and a proboscis.

Scales

Butterflies are characterized by their scale-covered wings. The coloration of butterfly facts wings is created by minute scales. These scales are pigmented with melanins that give them blacks and browns, but blues, greens, reds and iridescence are usually created not by pigments but the microstructure of the scales. This structural coloration is the result of coherent scattering of light by the photonic crystal nature of the scales.^[6][7][8] The scales cling somewhat loosely to the wing and come off easily without harming the butterfly facts 

 Photographic and light microscopic images

 

 

Electron microscopic images

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Polymorphism

Many adult butterflies exhibit polymorphism, showing differences in appearance. These variations include geographic variants and seasonal forms. In addition many species have females in multiple forms, often with mimetic forms. Sexual dimorphism in coloration and appearance is widespread in butterflies. In addition many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of ultraviolet reflectivity, while otherwise appearing identical to the unaided human eye. Most of the butterflies have a sex-determination system that is represented as ZW with females being the heterogametic sex (ZW) and males homogametic (ZZ).^[9]

Genetic abnormalities such as gynandromorphy also occur from time to time. In addition many butterflies are infected by Wolbachia and infection by the bacteria can lead to the conversion of males into females^[10] or the selective killing of males in the egg stage.^[11]

Mimicry

The Heliconius butterflies from the tropics of the Western Hemisphere are the classical model for Müllerian mimicry.^[12]

Batesian and Mullerian mimicry in butterflies is common. Batesian mimics imitate other species to enjoy the protection of an attribute they do not share, aposematism in this case. The Common Mormon of India has female morphs which imitate the unpalatable red-bodied swallowtails, theCommon Rose and the Crimson Rose. Mullerian mimicry occurs when aposematic species evolve to resemble each other, presumably to reduce predator sampling rates, the Heliconius butterflies from the Americas being a good example.

Wing markings called eyespots are present in some species; these may have an automimicry role for some species. In others, the function may be intraspecies communication, such as mate attraction. In several cases, however, the function of butterfly facts eyespots is not clear, and may be an evolutionary anomaly related to the relative elasticity of the genes that encode the spots.[13]^[14]

Seasonal polyphenism

Many of the tropical butterflies have distinctive seasonal forms. This phenomenon is termedseasonal polyphenism and the seasonal forms of the butterflies are called the dry-season and wet-season forms. How the season affects the genetic expression of patterns is still a subject of research.^[15] Experimental modification by ecdysone hormone treatment has demonstrated that it is possible to control the continuum of expression of variation between the wet and dry-season forms.^[16] The dry-season forms are usually more cryptic and it has been suggested that the protection offered may be an adaptation. Some also show greater dark colours in the wet-season form which may have thermoregulatory advantages by increasing ability to absorb solar radiation.^[17]

Bicyclus anynana is a species of butterfly facts that exhibits a clear example of seasonal polyphenism. These butterflies, endemic to Africa, have two distinct phenotypic forms that alternate according to the season. The wet-season forms have large, very apparent ventral eyespots whereas the dry-season forms have very reduced, oftentimes nonexistent, ventral eyespots. Larvae that develop in hot, wet conditions develop into wet-season adults whereas those growing in the transition from the wet to the dry season, when the temperature is declining, develop into dry-season adults.^[18] This polyphenism has an adaptive role in B. anynana. In the dry-season it is disadvantageous to have conspicuous eyespots because B. anynana blend in with the brown vegetation better without eyespots. By not developing eyespots in the dry-season they can more easily camouflage themselves in the brown brush. This minimizes the risk of visually mediated predation. In the wet-season, these brown butterflies cannot as easily rely on cryptic coloration for protection because the background vegetation is green. Thus, eyespots, which may function to decrease predation, are beneficial for B. anynana to express.^[19] 

Habits

Antennal shape in the Lepidoptera from C. T. Bingham (1905)

The Australian painted lady feeding on a flowering shrub

Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen,^[20] tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are important as pollinators for some species of butterfly plants although in general they do not carry as much pollen load as bees. They are however capable of moving pollen over greater distances.^[21] Flower constancy has been observed for at least one species of butterfly.^[22]

As adults, butterflies consume only liquids which are ingested by means of their proboscis. They sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy as well as sodium and other minerals vital for reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are attracted by sodium in salt; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. Some butterflies also visit dung, rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species, this mud-puddling behaviour is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients collected may be provided as a nuptial gift along with the spermatophore, during mating.^[23]

Butterflies use their antennae to sense the air for wind and scents. The antennae come in various shapes and colours; the hesperids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known assensillae. A butterfly facts  sense of taste, 200 times stronger than humans,[24] is coordinated by chemoreceptors on the tarsi, or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether an egg-laying insect’s offspring will be able to feed on a leaf before eggs are laid on it.^[25]Many butterflies use chemical signals, pheromones, and specialized scent scales (androconia) and other structures (coremata or ‘Hair pencils’ in the Danaidae) are developed in some species. 

Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum. Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches.^[26] Color vision may be widespread but has been demonstrated in only a few species.^[27][28] Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species are also known to make stridulatory and clicking sounds.^[29]

Monarch butterflies

Many butterflies, such as the Monarch butterfly, are migratory and capable of long distance flights. They migrate during the day and use the sun to orient themselves. They also perceive polarized light and use it for orientation when the sun is hidden.^[30] Many species of butterfly facts maintain territories and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have courtship flight displays. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the morning. Many species will orient themselves to gather heat from the sun. Some species have evolved dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this is especially evident in alpine forms.[31]

Flight

Heteronympha merope taking off

See also Insect flight

Like many other members of the insect world, the lift generated by butterflies is more than what can be accounted for by steady-state, non-transitory aerodynamics. Studies using Vanessa atalanta in a windtunnel show that they use a wide variety of aerodynamic mechanisms to generate force. These include wake capture, vortices at the wing edge, rotational mechanisms and Weis-Fogh ‘clap-and-fling’ mechanisms. The butterflies were also able to change from one mode to another rapidly.^[32]

Migration

The Monarch butterfly migrates large distances

See also Insect migration

Many butterflies migrate over long distances. Particularly famous migrations are those of theMonarch butterfly from Mexico to northern USA and southern Canada, a distance of about 4000 to 4800 km (2500–3000 miles). Other well known migratory species include the Painted Lady and several of the Danaine butterflies. Spectacular and large scale migrations associated with theMonsoons are seen in peninsular India.^[33] Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and also using stable hydrogen isotopes.^[34][35]

Butterflies have been shown to navigate using time compensated sun compasses. They can see polarized light and therefore orient even in cloudy conditions. The polarized light in the region close to the ultraviolet spectrum is suggested to be particularly important.^[36]

It is suggested that most migratory butterflies are those that belong to semi-arid areas where breeding seasons are short.^[37] The life-histories of their host butterfly plants also influence the strategies of the butterflies.[38]

Defense

Wings of a butterfly (Leopard Lacewing Cethosia cyane) become increasingly damaged as they age, and do not repair

See also Defense in insects

Butterflies are threatened in their early stages by parasitoids and in all stages by predators, diseases and environmental factors. They protect themselves by a variety of means.

Chemical defenses are widespread and are mostly based on chemicals of butterfly plants origin. In many cases the butterfly plants themselves evolved these toxic substances as protection against herbivores. Butterflies have evolved mechanisms

to sequester^{[disambiguation needed ]} these butterfly plants toxins and use them instead in their own defense.[39] These defense mechanisms are effective only if they are also well advertised and this has led to the evolution of bright colours in unpalatable butterflies. This signal may be mimicked by other butterflies. These mimetic forms are usually restricted to the females. 

Eyespots on the wings of the Citrus Swallowtail (Papilio demodocus) are part of its defense

Cryptic coloration is found in many butterflies. Some like the oakleaf butterfly facts are remarkable imitations of leaves.[40] As caterpillars, many defend themselves by freezing and appearing like sticks or branches. Some papilionid caterpillars resemble bird dropping in their early instars. Some caterpillars have hairs and bristly structures that provide protection while others are gregarious and form dense aggregations. Some species also form associations with ants and gain their protection (See Myrmecophile).

Behavioural defenses include perching and wing positions to avoid being conspicuous. Some female Nymphalid butterflies are known to guard their eggs from parasitoid wasps.^[41]

Eyespots and tails are found in many lycaenid butterflies and it is thought that their function is to divert the attention of predators from the more vital head region. An alternative theory is that these cause ambush predators such as spiders to approach from the wrong end and allow for early visual detection.^[42]

A butterfly’s hind wings are thought to allow them to take swift, tight turns to evade predators.^[43]

Notable Species

There are between 15,000 and 20,000 species of butterflies worldwide. Some well-known species from around the world include:

• Swallowtails and Birdwings, Family Papilionidae
  • Common Yellow Swallowtail, Papilio machaon
  • Spicebush Swallowtail, Papilio troilus
  • Lime Butterfly, Papilio demoleus
  • Ornithoptera genus (Birdwings; the largest butterflies)
• Whites and Yellows, Family Pieridae
  • Small White, Pieris rapae
  • Green-veined White, Pieris napi
  • Common Jezebel, Delias eucharis
• Blues and Coppers or Gossamer-Winged Butterflies, Family Lycaenidae
  • Xerces Blue, Glaucopsyche xerces (extinct)
  • Karner Blue, Lycaeides melissa samuelis (endangered)
  • Red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus
• Metalmark butterflies, Family Riodinidae
  • Duke of Burgundy, Hamearis lucina
  • Plum Judy, Abisara echerius
• Brush-footed butterflies, Family Nymphalidae
  • Painted Lady, or Cosmopolitan, Vanessa cardui
  • Monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus
  • Morpho genus
  • Speckled Wood, Pararge aegeria
• Skippers, Family Hesperiidae
  • Mallow Skipper, Carcharodus alceae
  • Zabulon Skipper, Poanes zabulon

Artistic depictions of butterflies have been used in many cultures including Egyptian hieroglyphs 3500 years ago.^[44] In the ancient Mesoamerican city of Teotihuacan, the brilliantly colored image of the butterfly facts was carved into many temples, buildings, butterfly jewelry , and emblazoned on incense burners in particular. The 

butterfly facts 

was sometimes depicted with the maw of a jaguar and some species were considered to be the reincarnations of the souls of dead warriors. The close association of butterflies to fire and warfare persisted through to the Aztec civilization and evidence of similar jaguar-butterfly images has been found among the Zapotec, and Mayancivilizations.^[45]

A serving tray decorated with butterfly wings

Today, butterflies are widely used in various objects of art and butterfly jewelry Butterfly Jewelry : mounted in frame, embedded in resin, displayed in bottles, laminated in paper, and used in some mixed media artworks and furnishings.[46] Butterflies have also inspired the “butterfly fairy” as an art and fictional character, including in the Barbie Mariposa film.

 

Symbolism

According to Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, by Lafcadio Hearn, a butterfly facts was seen in Japan as the personification of a person’s soul; whether they be living, dying, or already dead. One Japanese superstition says that if a 

butterfly facts 

enters your guestroom and perches behind the[bamboo screen, the person whom you most love is coming to see you. However, large numbers of butterflies are viewed as bad omens. When Taira no Masakado was secretly preparing for his famous revolt, there appeared in Kyoto so vast a swarm of butterflies that the people were frightened — thinking the apparition to be a portent of coming evil.^[47]

 

The Russian word for “butterfly”, бабочка (bábochka), also means “bow tie”. It is a diminutive of “baba” or “babka” (= “woman, grandmother, cake”), whence also “babushka” = “grandmother”.

The ancient Greek word for “butterfly” is ψυχή (psȳchē), which primarily means “soul” or “mind”.^[48]

According to Mircea Eliade’s Encyclopedia of Religion, some of the Nagas of Manipur trace their ancestry from a butterfly facts.[49]

Butterfly and Chinesewisteriaflowers, by Xü Xi (c.886–c.975), painted around 970 during the early Song Dynasty.

In Chinese culture, two butterflies flying together symbolize love. Also, Butterfly Lovers is a famous Chinese folktale. The Taoist philosopher, Zhuangzi, once had a dream about being a butterfly facts that flew without care about humanity; however; when he awoke and realized that it was just a dream, he thought to himself, “Was I before a man who dreamt about being a 

butterfly facts 

, or am I now a 

butterfly facts 

who dreams about being a man?” In some old cultures, butterflies also symbolize rebirth after being inside a cocoon for a period of time.Jose Rizal delivered a speech in 1884 at a banquet and mentioned “the Oriental chrysalis … is about to leave its cocoon”, comparing the emergence of a “new Philippines” with that of butterfly facts 

butterflytamorphosis  

.[50]He has also often used the 

butterfly facts 

imagery in his poems and other writings to express the Spanish Colonial Filipinos’ longing for liberty [51] Much later, in a letter to Ferdinand Blumentritt, Rizal compared his life in exile to a weary 

butterfly facts 

with sun-burnt wings.[52]

 

 

Der Schmetterlingsjäger (The butterfly hunter) by Carl Spitzweg(1840), a depiction from the era of butterfly collection.

Some people say that when a butterfly facts lands on you it means good luck.^[ citation needed] However, inDevonshire, people would traditionally rush around to kill the first 

butterfly facts 

of the year that they see, or else face a year of bad luck.[53] Also, in the Philippines, a lingering black 

butterfly facts 

or moth in the house is taken to mean that someone in the family has died or will soon die.[54] The idiom “butterflies in the stomach” is used to describe a state of nervousness.In the NBC television show Kings, butterflies are the national symbol of the fictional nation of Gilboa and a sign of God’s favor.

 

 

Technological inspiration

Researches on the wing structure of Palawan Birdwing butterflies led to new wide wingspan kite and aircraft designs.^[55] Studies on the reflection and scattering of light by the scales on wings of swallowtail butterflies led to the innovation of more efficient light-emitting diodes.^[56] The structural coloration of butterflies is inspiring nanotechnology research to produce paints that do not use toxic pigments and in the development of new display technologies.The discoloration and health of butterflies in butterfly facts farms, is now being studied for use as indicators of air quality in several cities.

See Also

• Butterfly Alphabet
• Butterfly zoo
• Differences between butterflies and moths
• Florida Museum of Natural History#McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity
• Moth

Lists

• List of butterflies of Great Britain
• List of butterflies of India
• List of butterflies of Menorca
• List of butterflies of North America
• List of butterflies in Taiwan
• List of butterflies of Tobago
• List of Australian butterflies
  • List of butterflies of Victoria
  • List of butterflies of Tasmania
• List of U.S. state butterflies

Field guides to butterflies

Some field guides to butterfly facts species include:[57] 

• Butterflies of North America, Jim P. Brock and Kenn Kaufman (2003)
• Butterflies through Binoculars: The East, Jeffrey Glassberg (1999)
• Butterflies through Binoculars: The West, Jeffrey Glassberg (2001)
• A Field Guide to Eastern Butterflies, Paul Opler (1994)
• A Field Guide to Western Butterflies, Paul Opler (1999)
• Peterson First Guide to Butterflies and Moths, Paul Opler (1994)
• Las Mariposas de Machu Picchu by Gerardo Lamas (2003)
• The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland by Jim Asher (Editor), et al.
• Pocket Guide to the Butterflies of Great Britain and Ireland by Richard Lewington
• Butterflies of Britain and Europe (Collins Wildlife Trust Guides) by Michael Chinery
• Butterflies of Europe by Tom Tolman and Richard Lewington (2001)
• Butterflies of Europe New Field Guide and Key by Tristan Lafranchis (2004)
• Butterflies of Lebanon by Torben B. Larsen. Beirut. (1974)
• The butterflies of Saudi Arabia and its neighbours. by Torben B. Laren (Stacey intl.) (1984)
• The butterflies of Egypt by Torben B. Larsen (Apollo Books, Denmark). (1990)
• Field Guide to Butterlies of South Africa by Steve Woodhall (2005)
• The butterflies of Kenya and their natural history by Torben B. Larsen (OUP) (1991)
• Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their Natural History by Meena Haribal (1994).
• Butterflies of Peninsular India by Krushnamegh Kunte, Universities Press (2005).
• Butterflies of the Indian Region by Col M. A. Wynter-Blyth, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India (1957).
• A Guide to Common Butterflies of Singapore by Steven Neo Say Hian (Singapore Science Centre)
• Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore by W.A.Fleming. (Longman Malaysia)
• The Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula by A.S. Corbet and H. M. Pendlebury. (The Malayan Nature Society)
• Butterflies of West Africa (two vols.) by Torben B. Larsen. (Apollo Books, Denmark) (2005)
• Oxford Butterflies of India by Thomas Gray, I.D.Kehimkar, J Punetha, Oxford University Press (2008)

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   Caterpillars and Ants by Vibrational Communication”.Science 248 (4959): 1104–1106.doi:10.1126/science.248.4959.1104. PMID 17733373. 

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23. ^ Molleman, Freerk; Grunsven, Roy H. A.; Liefting, Maartje; Zwaan, BAS J.; Brakefield, Paul M. (2005). “Is male puddling behaviour of tropical butterflies targeted at sodium for nuptial gifts or activity?”.Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 86 (3): 345–361. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00539.x. 
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32. ^ Srygley R. B., Thomas A. L. R. (2002). “Aerodynamics of insect flight: flow visualisations with free flying butterflies reveal a variety of unconventional lift-generating mechanisms” (PDF). Nature420 (6916): 660–664. doi:10.1038/nature01223.PMID 12478291. 
33. ^ Williams, C. B. (1927). “A study of 

    butterfly facts

    
    migration in south India and Ceylon, based largely on records by Messrs. G Evershed, E.E.Green, J.C.F. Fryer and W. Ormiston”. Trans. Ent. Soc. London 75: 1–33. 

34.  ^ Urquhart F. A., Urquhart N. R. (1977). “Overwintering areas and migratory routes of the Monarch 

    butterfly facts 

    Danaus p. plexippus, Lepidoptera: Danaidae) in North America, with special reference to the western population”. Can. Ent. 109 (12): 1583–1589.doi:10.4039/Ent1091583-12. 

35. ^ Wassenaar L.I., Hobson K.A. (1998). “Natal origins of migratory monarch butterflies at wintering colonies in Mexico: new isotopic evidence”. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 95 (26): 15436–9.doi:10.1073/pnas.95.26.15436. PMC 28060.PMID 9860986. 
36. ^ Sauman Ivo, Briscoe Adriana D., Zhu Haisun, Shi Dingding, Froy Oren, Stalleicken Julia, Yuan Quan, Casselman Amy et al (2005).“Connecting the Navigational Clock to Sun Compass Input in Monarch Butterfly Brain”. Neuron 46 (3): 457–467.doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.03.014. PMID 15882645. 
37. ^ Southwood, T. R. E. (1962). “Migration of terrestrial arthropods in relation to habitat”. Biol. Rev. 37 (2): 171–214. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1962.tb01609.x. 
38. ^ Dennis R L H, Shreeve Tim G., Arnold Henry R., Roy David B. (2005). “Does diet breadth control herbivorous insect distribution size? Life history and resource outlets for specialist butterflies”.Journal of Insect 

    butterfly conservation 

     9 (3): 187–200.doi:10.1007/s10841-005-5660-x. 

39. ^ Nishida, Ritsuo (2002). “Sequestration of defensive substances from 

    butterfly plants

     by Lepidoptera”. Annu. Rev. Entomol 47: 57–92.doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145121.PMID 11729069. 

40. ^ Robbins, Robert K. (1981). “The “False Head” Hypothesis: Predation and Wing Pattern Variation of Lycaenid Butterflies”.American Naturalist 118 (5): 770–775. doi:10.1086/283868. 
41. ^ Nafus, D. M. and I. H. Schreiner (1988) Parental care in a tropical nymphalid 

    butterfly facts

    
     Hypolimas anomala. Anim. Behav. 36: 1425- 143

42.  ^ William E. Cooper, Jr. (1998) Conditions favoring anticipatory and reactive displays deflecting predatory attack. Behavioral Ecology
43. ^ Hind Wings Help Butterflies Make Swift Turns to Evade Predators Newswise, Retrieved on January 8, 2008.
44. ^ Larsen, Torben (1994) Butterflies of Egypt. Saudi Aramco world. 45(5):24-27 Online
45. ^ The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Miller, Mary 1993 Thames & Hudson. London ISBN 978-0-500-27928-1
46. ^ “Table complete with real butterflies embedded in resin”. Mfjoe.com. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 
47. ^ Hearn, Lafcadio (1904). Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Thing. Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN 0-486-21901-1. 
48. ^ Hutchins, M., Arthur V. Evans, Rosser W. Garrison and Neil Schlager (Eds) (2003) Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, 2nd edition. Volume 3, Insects, Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2003.
49. ^ Rabuzzi, M. 1997.

    butterfly facts

    etymology. Cultural Entomology November 1997 Fourth issue online

50. ^ “The Best Known Speech of Jose Rizal”. Joserizal.info. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 
51. ^ “The Life and Writings of Dr. Jose Rizal”. Joserizal.info. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 
52. ^ “193. Rizal, Dapitan, 19 December 1898″. Univie.ac.at. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 
53. ^ Dorset Chronicle, May 1825, reprinted in: “The First Butterfly”, in The Every-day Book and Table Book; or, Everlasting Calendar of Popular Amusements, Sports, Pastimes, Ceremonies, Manners, Customs, and Events, Each of the Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Days, in Past and Present Times; Forming a Complete History of the Year, Months, and Seasons, and a Perpetual Key to the Almanac, Including Accounts of the Weather, Rules for Health and Conduct, Remarkable and Important Anecdotes, Facts, and Notices, in Chronology, Antiquities, Topography, Biography, Natural History, Art, Science, and General Literature; Derived from the Most Authentic Sources, and Valuable Original Communication, with Poetical Elucidations, for Daily Use and Diversion. Vol III., ed. William Hone, (London: 1838) p 678.
54. ^ “Death practices Philippine style”. Sunstar.com.ph. 2005-10-30. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 
55. ^ “An Introduction to The World of Birdwing Butterflies”. Nagypal.net. 2000-05-28. Retrieved 2009-03-30. 
56. ^ Vukusic, Pete and Ian Hooper. 2005. Directionally Controlled Fluorescence Emission in Butterflies Science. 310(5751):1151 DOI: 10.1126/science.1116612.
57. ^ For a more comprehensive list, see the International Field Guides database

Other references

• Boggs, C., Watt, W., Ehrlich, P. 2003. Butterflies: Evolution and Ecology Taking Flight. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
• Darby, Gene, 1958. What Is A

  butterfly facts

  . Chicago, Benefic Press. pp. 5 – 48.

• Heppner, J. B. 1998. Classification of Lepidoptera. Holarctic Lepidoptera, Suppl. 1.
• Monteiro A., Pierce N. E. (2001). “Phylogeny of Bicyclus (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae) inferred from COI, COII, and EF-1 alpha gene sequences”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 18 (2): 264–281. doi:10.1006/mpev.2000.0872. PMID 11161761. 
• Nemos, F. ca. 1895. Europas bekannteste Schmetterlinge. Beschreibung der wichtigsten Arten und Anleitung zur Kenntnis und zum Sammeln der Schmetterlinge und Raupen Oestergaard Verlag, Berlin, (pdf 77MB)
• Peña, C.; Waklberg, N.; Weingartner, E.; Kodandaramaiah, U.; Nylin, S.; Freitas, A. V. L.; Brower, A. V. Z. (2006). “Higher level phylogeny of Satyrinae butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) based on DNA sequence data”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40(1): 29–49. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.007. PMID 16563805. 
• Pyle, R. M. 1992. Handbook for 

  butterfly facts

  
  Watchers. Houghton Mifflin. First published, 1984. ISBN 0-395-61629-8

• Stevens, M. (2005). “The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera”. Biological Reviews80 (4): 573–588. doi:10.1017/S1464793105006810. PMID 16221330.

External References

• The Royal Horticultural Society butterfly exhibition
• Papilionoidea on the Tree of Life Web project
• Butterflies on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
• Literaturatenbank Free downloads
• Butterflies at Lepidoptera.pro: thousands of species and photos
• International Field Guides database—a (more) comprehensive list of field guides

Images and movies

BugGuide.net Many images of North American butterflies, many licensed via Creative Commons

Butterfly Pictures and Information

Butterfly of Brazil

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Gallery of Florida Butterflies and Moths

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Butterfly Movies (Tree of Life)

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Online videos of Skippers of the Northeast-USA

Butterflies Monitoring & Photography Society of Turkey

Karen Blue Butterfly
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Karner Blue, Lycaeides melissa samuelis, is an endangered species of small, blue butterfly which is found in significant numbers within the Miller Beach community of the Indiana Dunes National Park. The butterfly facts is also found in other parts of the Great Lakes in small areas of New Jersey, and also in southern New Hampshire, and the Capital District region of New York. The

butterfly facts , whose lifecycle depends on the wild blue lupine flower (Lupinus perennis), is classified as an endangered species. In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the Karner Blue as being locally extinct in Canada.^[1] This subspecies of Lycaeides melissawas described by novelist Vladimir Nabokov. It is sometimes placed in the genus Plebejus.^[2] Local butterfly conservation efforts, concentrating on replanting large areas of blue lupine which have been lost to development (and to fire suppression, which destroys the open, sandy butterfly habitat required by blue lupine), are having modest success at encouraging the butterfly’s repopulation. The Karner Blue is the official state  butterfly facts of New Hampshire. The Necedah National Wildlife Refuge in central Wisconsin is home to the world’s largest population of Karner Blues, which benefit from its vast area of savannah and extensive lupine.

The Karner Blue was first identified and named by novelist and lepidopterist Vladimir Nabokov. The name originates from Karner, New York (located half-way between Albany andSchenectady) in the Albany Pine Bush), where it was first discovered. Lupine blooms in late May. There are two generations of Karner Blues per year. The first in late May to mid June. The second from mid-July to mid-August.

• 1 Description
• 2 Distribution and habitat
  • 2.1 Wild lupine
  • 2.2 Canopy cover
  • 2.3 Nectar species
  • 2.4 Disturbance
  • 2.5 Temperature
  • 2.6 Landscape effects
  • 2.7 Dispersal
• 3 Life history and reproduction
• 4 Ecology
  • 4.1 Food habits
  • 4.2 Predators
  • 4.3 Mutualism with ants
• 5 Management considerations
  • 5.1 Nectar
  • 5.2 Heterogeneity
• 6 References
• 7 External links

• Description

  The male and female of this small (wingspan of about one inch) butterfly facts are different in appearance. The topside of the male is silvery or dark blue with narrow black margins. The female is grayish brown, especially on the outer portions of the wings, to blue on the topside, with irregular bands of orange crescents inside the narrow black border. The underside of both sexes is gray with a continuous band of orange crescents along the edges of both wings and with scattered black spots circled with white.[4]

  [edit]Distribution and habitat

  The Karner blue butterfly facts occurs in isolated populations in Miller Beach, Indiana, eastern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Michigan, and New York. Reintroductions have been initiated in Ohio and New Hampshire. The Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  appears extirpated from Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Maine, and Ontario.[5]^[6] Although Karner blue butterflies are characteristic of oak   savannas (Quercus spp.) and pine barrens (Pinus spp.) 

  butterfly habitat 

  , they also occur in frequently disturbed areas such as rights-of-way, old fields, and road margins. In east-central New York, Karner blue butterflies occurred in 3 rights-of-way 

  butterfly habitat 

  types: wild lily-of-the-valley-starflower (Maianthemum canadensis-Trientalis borealis), sweetfern-whorled yellow loosestrife (Comptonia peregrina-Lysimachia quadrifolia), and blackberry-sheep sorrel (Rubus spp.-Rumex acetosella). An index of Karner blue population size was highest in the wild lily-of-the-valley-starflower type. In this 

  butterfly habitat 

  , mosses (Bryophyta, 6.9%), wild lily-of-the-valley (4.4%), grasses (Poaceae, 4.4%), and starflower (2.1%) had the highest cover. Coverage in the sweetfern-whorled yellow loosestrife type was dominated by grasses (40.9%), sweetfern (12.1%), mosses (9.4%), and whorled yellow loosestrife (5.2%). In the blackberry-sheep sorrel type, the dominants included grasses (22.7%), northern dewberry (Rubus flagellaris, 5.0%), other blackberries (4.8%), and sheep sorrel (4.3%).[7]

   

   

  Wild lupine

  Several studies have found a positive relationship between measures of wild lupine and Karner blue butterfly facts abundance. However, available evidence suggests that senescent wild lupine is a poor larval food source. The effects of other phenological stages are more ambiguous. In west-central Wisconsin, Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  abundance was negatively associated with the abundance of reproductive lupine and positively related with the frequency of immature wild lupine. However, a feeding trial found that Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  fed 1st year wild lupine had one of the lowest survival rates observed and significantly longer larval durations than larvae fed older wild lupine that did not flower, was flowering, had recently flowered, or was grown in shade and was in seed. In addition, on sites in Wisconsin and Minnesota, the number of 1st flight oviposition sites on nonreproductive and reproductive wild lupine was similar.[8]^[9] Many other factors may influence the quality of wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) as a Karner blue butterfly facts food resource. At Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, wild lupine with Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  feeding damage had significantly larger leaves and longer and thicker stems than 

  butterfly plants 

  without feeding damage.[10] In addition, larval length was positively associated with wild lupine height in central Wisconsin.^[11] Higher nitrogen concentrations in wild lupine leaves resulted in significantly shorter larval durations in a feeding trial.^[8] In 1995 in west-central Wisconsin, significantly more Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  larvae were observed in oak-pine barren plots where mildew infection was delayed compared to areas where wild lupine were infected earlier. However, in a feeding trial larval duration of Karner blue butterflies fed mildew-infected wild lupine was not significantly different from treatments that resulted in the shortest larval durations. Karner blue butterfly fed water-stressed wild lupine had significantly longer larval durations than many treatments including larvae fed flowering wild lupine, shade-grown wild lupine in seed, or mildew-infected wild lupine.[8] Although Karner blue butterflies have been shown to benefit from their association with ants, wild lupine with Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  larvae in the Allegan State Game Area in Michigan were not detectably closer to ant hills than wild lupine without caterpillars.[12] 

  [edit]Canopy cover

  Due to effects of environmental variation and differing requirements among life stages, broods, and sexes, Karner blue butterflies require a mosaic of sun and shade.^[9][10][13]

  Adult Karner blue butterflies’ preference for open, sunny areas has been well documented. Increased lupine and nectar abundance, higher temperatures allowing for longer activity periods, and ease of finding mates have been suggested as possible reasons for adult preference of open areas.^[9][10][13] Adult Karner blue butterfly facts females are more likely to use shaded butterfly habitat than males. Avoiding harassment by males and compromising between greater amounts of wild lupine in open areas and better quality of wild lupine in shaded areas (see below) have been suggested as possible reasons for increased occurrence of females in shade.[10]^[13][14] 

  Differences between broods have also been observed. In west-central Wisconsin, abundance of spring adults positively correlated with decreasing canopy cover, while correlation with summer adults was very weak. At Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, cover at late summer oviposition sites was significantly higher than at late spring oviposition sites. In Wisconsin and Minnesota, late spring oviposition sites occurred in partial and closed butterfly habitat significantly more than expected based on the number of nectar flowers and the cover and number of wild lupine stems, while summer oviposition sites did not differ significantly from expected.[9]^[10][13] The different brood responses to shade may be due to the direct impact of varying environmental conditions over the course of the season on Karner blue butterflies (see section “Temperature”) and the associated effects on wild lupine (see below). 

  Larvae in shaded butterfly habitat apparently have an advantage over those in open areas. The increase in larvae in shaded 

  butterfly habitat 

  is likely due to effects of shade on wild lupine.[8]^[13][15] 

   

  Shade-grown wild lupine has been shown to provide higher quality larval resource than sun-grown lupine. Several reasons for this have been suggested. An often cited reason for the dependence of larvae, especially 2nd-brood larvae, on shaded butterfly habitat is the possibility of early senescence of wild lupine in open areas resulting in a lack of larval food.[9]^[10][12][13] Shade-grown wild lupine being more nutritious, possibly due to nitrogen content limiting photosynthesis to a greater extent in open areas, was one of several explanations. The size of wild lupine has been positively associated with Karner blue butterfly facts larval length[11] and amount of feeding damage. In addition, there may be shade-related effects on Karner blue butterflies that are related to the density of wild lupine. Wild lupine are typically more abundant in open areas than in shade.^[10] Mildew infection of wild lupine may be increased in denser wild lupine patches. Lower mildew infection rates in shadier areas have been reported.^[13] However the implications of mildew infection on Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  are uncertain (see section “Wild lupine”). It has also been suggested that the low density of wild lupine in shadier 

  butterfly habitat 

  could provide better larval 

  butterfly habitat 

  due to the increased search effort required by predators.[9]^[13] This trade-off between lupine quality and quantity is another reason heterogeneous 

  butterfly habitat 

  is important for Karner blue 

   butterfly facts 

  .[10] 

   

  On sites in Wisconsin and Minnesota, canopy cover did not have a significant (p>0.06) effect on total numbers of ants, parasitoids, or predators. However, certain species did show trends across canopy cover categories. For instance the ant Formica nitidiventris was only seen in open (≤15% cover) areas, while another ant, Dolichoderus plagiatus was only observed in areas with a dense canopy (≥76% cover). Parasitoids in the genera Phaeogenes and Orthostigma were all seen in closed butterfly habitat , while 90% of damsel bugs (Nabicula subcoleoptrata), a potential predator, were observed in open areas. Closed 

  butterfly habitat 

  had insignificantly (p=0.116) more parasitoids on average than partial (16%–75% cover) and closed 

  butterfly habitat 

  .[9][edit]

   

  Nectar species

  Nectar availability is likely to influence Karner blue butterfly facts abundance. In a right-of-way in west-central Wisconsin, the frequency that Karner blue butterflies stayed in an area between recaptures was significantly (p<0.05) positively related to percent cover of nectar flowers such as Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis var. canadensis) and spotted beebalm (Monarda punctata).[16] Preliminary results from a study in southeastern Minnesota suggest that openings where Karner blue butterflies were detected tended to have more flowering nectar species.^[17]In Michigan, more Karner blue butterflies were observed on sites with more nectaring butterfly plants , especially 

   butterfly facts 

  milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa).[12] As discussed in Canopy cover, nectar species increase in open 

  butterfly habitat 

  .[9]^[13][18] For instance, at Fort McCoy in west-central Wisconsin, all the nectar species listed for Karner blue butterflies require either full or partial sun.^[18] In addition, treatments such as cutting with or without herbicides, herbicide application alone, or mowing at varying intervals resulted in a significant (p<0.01) increase in the number and cover of nectar species.^[19] See section “Food habits” for species that Karner blue butterflies use as nectar sources. 

   

  Other butterfly habitat characteristics: Although Schweitzer[20] asserts that the presence of litter is important to Karner blue butterflies in some years, abundance in a right-of-way in west-central Wisconsin was negatively (p<0.05) related with average litter cover.^[16]

  In west-central Wisconsin, the amount of Karner blue butterfly facts larval feeding damage increased with grass cover.[13] A review suggests that grass cover may provide roosting sites for Karner blue butterflies and that 5% cover of tall grass would most likely meet this need.^[6][edit]

  Disturbance

  Karner blue butterflies may be associated with disturbance. Although results may have been biased by a significant (p=0.009) positive correlation (r=0.2173) between patch area and number of disturbances (such as burning, vehicle traffic, and thinning and clearing), patches in a right-of-way in west-central Wisconsin occupied by Karner blue butterflies had a greater frequency of disturbance than unoccupied patches (p≤0.0125).^[16] In the same area, the abundance of the Karner blue butterfly facts spring brood was positively related to trails,[13] and the percent of lupine stems with larval feeding damage was significantly (p<0.05) greater in areas disturbed by military vehicle traffic.^[21]

  [edit]Temperature

  Karner blue butterflies are directly affected by temperature.^[9][22] A laboratory investigation of temperature on Karner blue butterfly facts found that flight typically begins at 76 °F (24.6 °C) for females and 80 °F (26.4 °C) for males (p=0.25). Signs of heat stress started at 96 °F (35.6 °C) for females and 98 °F (36.8 °C) for males (p=0.25).[9] In pine-oak barrens in Wisconsin, observation rates of Karner blue butterflies increased significantly (p=0.000) with increasing temperature.^[22]

  The effect of temperature can influence the occurrence of Karner blue butterflies in butterfly habitat of varying canopy cover.[9] The lower temperatures occurring in partial and shaded 

  butterfly habitat 

  of Wisconsin and Minnesota meant that 1st-flight females only had access to these areas for a few hours a day. In contrast, these females could access open 

  butterfly habitat 

  an average of 10.5 hours a day. The percent of adults in 

  butterfly habitat 

  of varying canopy categories was significantly (p=0.0001) influenced by temperature, with butterflies, especially females, increasing in partial (15-75%) and shaded (>75%) 

  butterfly habitat 

  with increasing temperature. In addition, 80% (n=45) of 1st-flight ovipositions when temperatures were cool (68-79 °F, 20-26 °C) were in sun, while only 40% (n=17) of 1st-flight ovipositions in hot temperatures (86-97 °F, 30-36 °C) occurred in the sun. The same trend was observed in 2nd-flight ovipositions. In cool temperatures 65% (n=11) of ovipositions occurred in the sun, while in hot temperatures only 40% (n=37) occurred in the sun.[9]

   

  Temperature also influences Karner blue butterfly facts phenology and brood success. Weather had strong influence on Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  phenology at Fort McCoy in west-central Wisconsin. In a cool year the 2nd-brood flight began 6 June, while in a warmer year adults were 1st detected on 22 May. In addition, compared to the previous year the flight of the 2nd-brood during the hot year was shortened by 20 days.[13]At Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, evidence suggests that cool winters negatively impact1st-brood populations and cool summers positively affect 2nd-brood populations.^[14] A review suggests that the cover provided by snowpack protects Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  eggs from hatching prematurely or being overheated by direct sunlight. Therefore, short periods of continuous snow cover due to site conditions or mild winters could result in decreased occurrence or smaller populations of Karner blue butterflies.[23][edit] 

   

  Landscape effects

  Karner blue butterflies are dependant on heterogeneous butterfly habitat as it provides the varied requirements of different Karner blue  butterfly facts broods, sexes, and life stages over a wide range of environmental conditions.[6]^[10][13][15] Research at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore led to recommendations for canopy openings for adult males and nectaring of both sexes, as well as areas with 30-60% cover for ovipositing females.^[10] In the Allegan State Game Area, wild lupine patches occupied by Karner blue butterflies had higher density of edge 

  butterfly habitat 

  that unoccupied wild lupine patches.[24] In west-central Wisconsin the importance of shaded 

  butterfly habitat 

  led to a recommendation that 20% to 40% of Karner blue 

   butterfly facts 

   habitat provide shaded lupine and that 1/3 have >60% canopy cover with succession in these dense areas allowed to progress to complete closure. Maxwell[13] also suggests avoiding any management that would result in 

  butterfly habitat 

  homogenization. The Karner blue 

   butterfly facts 

  recovery team[6] mentions the importance of a wide range of aspects, hydrology, microtopography as well canopy cover (0-90%) in conserving the Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  . However, Karner blue populations can persist in relatively homogenous 

  butterfly habitat 

  . For instance, a population has persisted at the Saratoga Airport in New York in open 

  butterfly habitat 

  maintained by regular mowing. More information on the 

  butterfly habitat 

  characteristics, environmental conditions, and/or geographic variability in 

  butterfly habitat 

  requirements that facilitate Karner blue butterfly’s persistence in these areas is needed.[5]^[10][20] 

   

  Size of butterfly habitat patches can also influence Karner blue  butterfly facts abundance (see section “Wild lupine”). At the Allegan State Game Area, wild lupine patches occupied by Karner blue butterflies were larger than unoccupied patches.[24] This was also the case at Fort McCoy in Wisconsin.^[25] In addition to the effect of amount of wild lupine, a review^[5] suggests that it is easier to maintain Karner blue 

  butterfly habitat 

  in larger patches. Lane[9] notes the need to find a balance between having patches of different required habitats within the activity range of Karner blue butterflies and having open areas large enough that they do not become shaded too quickly. Canopy openings with diameters of at least 82 feet (25 m) were recommended based on research at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore,^[10] and research in Wisconsin and Minnesota led to a recommended opening size of 1.5 times the height of adjacent trees.^[9] According to a review, subpopulations in habitat patches of less than 0.25 ha (0.62 acres) are vulnerable to extirpation.^[6] 

   

  [edit]Dispersal

  Given their typically short dispersal distance, the spatial arrangement of butterfly habitat is important to the butterfly conservation of the Karner blue  butterfly facts . Distance between the various types of 

  butterfly habitat 

  required by Karner blue butterflies is likely an influential landscape attribute.[9]^[13] Lane^[9]suggests that suitable Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  habitat occurs in areas where open and closed canopies occur within a 590-foot (180 m) diameter. Maxwell[13] recommends considering the amount of shaded wild lupine 

  butterfly habitat 

  within the dispersal distance of Karner blue 

   butterfly facts 

  when reducing overstory. Many investigators stress the importance of 

  butterfly habitat 

  patches being closely spaced.[14]^[16][26] For instance, at sites in west-central Wisconsin, the average distance from an occupied wild lupine patch to another occupied patch was significantly (p=0.002) shorter (709 feet, 216 m) than to an unoccupied patch (1,155 feet, 352 m).^[16] Wild lupine patches in the same area that were occupied by Karner blue butterflies were also surrounded by a relatively low percentage of unoccupied patches.^[25] In addition, wild lupine patches in the Allegan State Game Area that were occupied by Karner blue butterflies were closer to other occupied patches than wild lupine patches without Karner blue butterflies. This led to the recommendation that 

  butterfly habitat

   

  patches be within 230 feet (70 m) of each other.[24] Isolation of 

  butterfly habitat 

  patches has been suggested as a reason for lack of Karner blue 

   butterfly facts 

  presence on sites in New York.[26] In addition, studies of Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  dispersal have led to recommended distance between patches of ≤980 feet (300 m) to allow for dispersal[14] and management units no wider than 1,300 to 1,600 feet (400–500 m) to improve recolonization of treated areas.^[16] 

  The presence of dispersal corridors may assist with Karner blue butterfly facts dispersal. Karner blue butterflies appear to disperse further in open butterfly habitat

  (see section “Timing of major life history events”). However, there is uncertainty regarding what constitutes a corridor or a barrier to dispersal.[6] Creation of corridors with both lupine for larvae and nectar species for adults may be useful in connecting 

  butterfly habitat 

  patches.[6]^[16]

  [edit]Life history and reproduction

  Karner blue butterflies have two broods per year, following wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) phenology quite closely.^[11][23] Eggs laid by Karner blue butterflies in late summer overwinter and hatch in mid- to late April. Development from egg through four larval instars and pupation takes from 25 to 60 days. The average lifespan of adult Karner blue butterflies has been reported at between 3 and 5 days. The first Karner blue butterfly facts flight generally occurs sometime between mid-May and mid-June, with males typically appearing earlier than females. First flight females lay the vast majority of their eggs on wild lupine. These eggs develop into the adults of the second Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  flight, which generally occurs in July and August. Although always near a wild lupine 

  butterfly plants 

  , second brood females lay more eggs on grasses, other 

  butterfly plants 

  , and litter than 1st brood females. The 2nd flight is typically two to four times the size of the first flight. However, the first flight of Karner blue butterflies can be larger than the second. Timing and size of both flights can exhibit substantial variation, depending on local weather conditions among other factors.[13]^[14][22]

  A wide range of values related to Karner blue butterfly facts recruitment have been reported. Adult Karner blue sex ratios vary from 1 male to 1.44 females to 2 males to 1 female. Wild caught Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  females have been observed to lay from 7.7 to 83 eggs on average. Reported percentages of eggs that reach adulthood under controlled conditions vary from 21.4% to 75.2%.[27]^[28][29] In the wild, loss of eggs may be substantial.^[23] 

   

  Karner blue butterflies do not typically move vary far, with males usually moving further than females, with most studies showing average distances moved by individual butterflies of well under 1,000 feet (300 m).^{[12][14][16][17]}edit]

  Ecology

  [edit]Food habits

  Wild lupine is the sole larval food source of the Karner Blue Butterfly facts . Adult Karner blue butterflies obtain nectar from several native and nonnative species. Karner blue butterflies have been reported feeding on the nectar of 41 different species in a single study in west-central Wisconsin.[18] Broods differ significantly in the species used for nectaring, likely due to differences in their phenology. Several blackberries have been documented as food sources for the spring brood, while spotted beebalm, white sweetclover (Melilotus alba),^{[16][18][30][31]} and flowering spurge (Euphorbia corollata),^{[12][16][18][31]} are widely cited sources of nectar in the summer. Common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex) is used as a nectar species for both broods.^[19][30][31] Karner blue butterflies’ preferred nectar species may include 

  butterfly facts 

  weed in New York[20] and Michigan^[12] and lyrate rockcress (Arabis lyrata), lanceleaf tickseed (Coreopsis lanceolata), white sweetclover, and northern dewberry at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Differences in nectar species used between male and female Karner blue butterflies and across locations have been reported. Other often mentioned nectar sources include New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), wild lupine, goldenrods (Solidago spp.), and spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa).^{[5][19][28][30]}

   

  [edit]Predators

  Spiders and many insects are the major predators of Karner blue butterflies. The seven-spotted lady beetle is one of the few confirmed predators of Karner blue butterfly facts larvae.[9]^[32] Paper wasps (Polistes spp.), spined soldier bugs, and ants (Formica spp.) have been observed removing larvae,^[33] and the ant Monomorium emarginatum has been seen chewing on Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  eggs.[34] There is currently no explanation for the removal of larvae or chewing of eggs by some of the same ant species that tend larvae.^[33][34] Other potential predators of Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  larvae include green lacewings, soldier beetles, and damsel bugs.^[9] Predators of adult Karner blue butterflies includedragonflies, robber flies, ambush bugs (Phymatidae) and spiders,^[16] such as crab spiders. Assassin bugs (Reduviidae) are also likely predators of adult Karner blue butterflies.^[9] Other likely predators include white-tailed deer and birds. Incidental predation of Karner blue butterfly facts eggs, larvae, and pupae by white-tailed deer grazing on wild lupine can be substantial.[18]^[20] Wasps are the most commonly reported parasitoids of Karner blue butterflies. A tachinid fly, Aplomya theclarum, has also been listed as a Karner blue butterfly facts parasite.[5] Two wasps, one from the Trichogrammatidae family and another tentatively identified as a member of theEulophidae family, are suspected to parasitize Karner blue  

  butterfly facts

   eggs.[34] 

   

  [edit]Mutualism with ants

  Karner blue butterfly facts larvae benefit from a facultative, mutualistic relationship with several ant species. In pitch pine-bear oak (Pinus rigida-Quercus ilicifolia) butterfly habitat

  in New York, significantly more larvae tended by ants survived (67%) than untended larvae (38%). The 19 ant species tending Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  larvae were from the subfamilies Formicinae, Myrmicinae, and Dolichoderinae, which are the most common in the area. The species of ant is likely to influence the degree of benefit gained by Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  larvae.[33] At sites in Wisconsin and Minnesota, ant tending rates increased significantly with increasing larval age.^[9] In a study of the effect of different experimental feeding treatments, Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  larvae tended by ants had one of the shortest observed larval durations and gained the most weight for the amount of lupine eaten.[8]

  [edit]Management considerations

  According to reviews, butterfly habitatloss through direct conversion to other land uses and through succession are considered the major causes of the decline of the Karner blue  butterfly facts .[5]^[6] At the time of this writing (2006), two reviews^[6][35] summarize the recent status of Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  across its range. Recovery criteria are addressed by,[5]^[6] while Christenson and Lentz^[36] discuss lessons learned developing a statewide 

  butterfly habitat 

   

  butterfly conservation

   

  Plan for Wisconsin.

  Articles that address Karner blue  butterfly facts sampling methodology include.[14]^[37][38][39] Swengel^[11] found that surveys for Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  adults appeared more efficient than those for larvae. Evidence of different catchability and/or detectability of male and female Karner blue butterflies led King[40] to suggest calculating male and female population sizes separately. General descriptions of Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  rearing methods[27]^[29] and translocation/ reintroduction techniques are available.^[20][28] 

  A wide variety of management techniques can be compatible with maintaining Karner blue butterfly facts populations when attention is paid to implementing them at appropriate times and at intensities, scales, and frequencies that Karner blue butterflies can tolerate. For example, mowing can maintain open areas with little to no detrimental effect on Karner blue butterflies on sites where burning is impractical or in areas too small to support populations of Karner blue butterflies likely to survive a burn.[11]^[20][22] On restored oak savanna sites in south-central Wisconsin, no significant (p=0.924) differences were detected between Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  densities on sites burned in summer, sites mowed in August, and control sites.[41] Mowing with a blade height >4 inches (10 cm) should be performed annually or biennially in the fall or winter and clippings should be left in place.^[6][20] Effects of mowing, burning, and other management techniques and land uses on the average number of Karner blue butterflies observed per survey hour are included in.^[22] Recommendations on the use of a wide range of management techniques such as thinning, rotational grazing, and planting of wild lupine and/or nectar species can be found in.^[6][13] 

   

  According to reviews and general field observations, management activities that are typically harmful to Karner blue butterflies include management that increases deer and/or grouse populations, close-cropped grazing, frequent or poorly-timed mowing, plowing, use of herbicides that kill lupine or nectar butterfly plants , and use of pesticides that are detrimental to Karner blue butterflies, ants they associate with, or pollinators of species they use for nectar.[5]^[6][26][31] Information on the impacts of an insecticide on Karner blue butterflies^[42] and some herbicides^[43] on Karner blue butterflies as well as lupine and nectar species are available. According to the Karner blue butterfly facts recovery plan, management activities that can have a detrimental effect should be timed to allow at least 2 generations between repeat treatments and, if possible, critical subpopulations should be divided into discrete management units.[6] 

  [edit]Nectar

  Given the wide range of nectar species used by Karner blue butterfly facts (see section “Food habits”), planting several often used or preferred nectar species is favored over selecting 1 or 2 specific species. Species selection should attempt to provide nectar sources in both open and partially shaded conditions throughout the growing season despite yearly variation in environmental conditions.[6]^[30] Planting nonnative nectar sources is discouraged due to their potential impacts on native food sources, especially wild lupine.^[6]

  [edit]Heterogeneity

  Heterogeneity is an important feature of Karner blue butterfly facts habitat. Specific recommendations regarding the spatial arrangement of the various required butterfly habitat types and Karner blue 

   butterfly facts 

   habitat patches are discussed in Landscape effects. Creation and rotation of management units should incorporate this information as well as data on Karner blue 

  butterfly facts 

  movement (see section “Timing of major life history events”).[6] Bidwell^[16] recommends management units be a maximum of 1,300 to 1,600 feet (400–500 m) wide to improve recolonization from neighboring areas. Depending on the available and surrounding 

  butterfly habitat 

  , managing for heterogeneity could mean implementing a wide range of techniques.[6]^[13][44] 

   

  References

   This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Agriculture document “Lycaeides melissa samuelis”.

  1. ^ “Wildlife Species Assessments (short version)” (PDF).COSEWIC. April 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-26. 
  2. ^ “Species Detail”. Butterflies and Moths of North America.Montana State University. Retrieved 2010-10-26. 
  3. ^ Kurt Johnson and Stephen Coates. Nabokov’s Blues. The Scientific Odyssey of a Literary Genius. Zoland Books, Cambridge, MA (1999) ISBN 1-58195-009-8
  4. ^ Karner Blue Butterfly: Fact Sheet
  5. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Haack, Robert A. 1993. The endangered Karner blue 

     butterfly facts 

     (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): biology, management considerations, and data gaps. In: Gillespie, Andrew R.; Parker, George R.; Pope, Phillip E., eds. Proceedings, 9th central hardwood forest conference; 1993 March 8–10; West Lafayette, IN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-161. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station: 83–100

  6. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r} U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2003. Karner blue butterfly recovery plan (Lycaeides melissa samuelis), Fort Snelling, MN: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service
  7. ^ Smallidge, Peter J.; Leopold, Donald J.; Allen, Craig M (1996). “Community characteristics and vegetation management of Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) habitats on rights-of-way in east-central New York, USA”. Journal of Applied Ecology 33(6): 1405–1419. doi:10.2307/2404780. JSTOR 2404780. 
  8. ^ ^{a b c d e} Grundel, Ralph; Pavlovic, Noel B.; Sulzman, Christina L. (1998). “The effect of canopy cover and seasonal change on host plant quality for the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeidesmelissasamuelis)”. Oecologia 114 (2): 243.doi:10.1007/s004420050442. 
  9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t} Lane, Cynthia P. 1999. Benefits of heterogeneous habitat: oviposition preference and immature performance of Lycaeides melissa samuelis Nabokov (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Dissertation
  10. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Grundel, R (1998). “Habitat use by the endangered Karner blue butterfly in oak woodlands: the influence of canopy cover”. Biological Conservation 85: 47.doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(97)00165-1. 
  11. ^ ^{a b c d e} Swengel, Ann B. 1995. Observations of spring larvae of Lycaeides melissa samuelis (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in central Wisconsin. The Great Lakes Entomologist. 28(2): 155–170
  12. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Lawrence, William S. 1994. Karner blue butterfly populations in the Allegan State Game Area, Michigan. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue butterfly: a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 53–62
  13. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s} Maxwell, Judith Ann. 1998. The conservation of the Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis Nabokov): ecological studies on habitat creation and management. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, Dissertation
  14. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Knutson, Randy L.; Kwilosz, John R.; Grundel, Ralph. 1999. Movement patterns and population characteristics of the Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Natural Areas Journal. 19(2): 109–120
  15. ^ ^a b Lane, Cynthia P.; Andow, David A (2003). “Oak savanna subhabitat variation and the population biology of Lycaeides melissa samuelis (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)”. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 96 (6): 799–809.doi:10.1603/0013-8746(2003)096[0799:OSSVAT]2.0.CO;2.ISSN 0013-8746. 
  16. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Bidwell, Andrew D. 1995. Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) dispersal and habitat disturbance at Fort McCoy Military Reservation, Wisconsin. Stevens Point, WI: University of Wisconsin, Thesis
  17. ^ ^a b Lane, Cynthia P. 1994. Habitat preferences of the Karner blue butterfly in Minnesota. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue butterfly: a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 63–72
  18. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Leach, Mark K. 1993. Status and distribution of the Karner blue butterfly at Fort McCoy, Wisconsin: final report on a two-year study. [Madison, WI]: The Nature Conservancy, Wisconsin Chapter. [Prepared for: U.S. Army, Fort McCoy Military Reservation, Natural Resource Management Division, Fort McCoy, WI]. Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT
  19. ^ ^a b c Forrester, Jodi A.; Leopold, Donald J.; Hafner, Sasha D. (2005). “Maintaining Critical Habitat in a Heavily Managed Landscape: Effects of Power Line Corridor Management on Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) Habitat”. Restoration Ecology 13 (3): 488. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2005.00061.x. 
  20. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Schweitzer, Dale F. 1994. Recovery goals and methods for Karner blue butterfly populations. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue butterfly: a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 185–193
  21. ^ Smith, MA; Turner, MG; Rusch, DH (2002). “The effect of military training activity on eastern lupine and the Karner blue butterfly at Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, USA”. Environmental management 29 (1): 102–15. doi:10.1007/s00267-001-0044-9. PMID 11740627. 
  22. ^ ^{a b c d e} Swengel, Ann B.; Swengel, Scott R. 1996. Factors affecting abundance of adult Karner blues (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Wisconsin surveys 1987-95. The Great Lakes Entomologist. 29(3): 93–105
  23. ^ ^a b c Dirig, Robert. 1994. Historical notes of wild lupine and the Karner blue butterfly at the Albany Pine Bush, New York. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue butterfly: a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 23–36
  24. ^ ^a b c Greenfeld, Lisa Michelle. 1997. Habitat quality and utilization analysis in a spatial context: the case of Lupinus perennis L. and Lycaeides melissa samuelis Nabokov, (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, Thesis
  25. ^ ^a b Grundel, R; Pavlovic, N (2007). “Resource availability, matrix quality, microclimate, and spatial pattern as predictors of patch use by the Karner blue 

      butterfly facts 

       Biological Conservation 135: 135.doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.10.003. 

  26. ^ ^a b c Savignano, Dolores A. 1994. The distribution of the Karner blue 

      butterfly facts

      
      in Saratoga County, New York. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue 

      butterfly facts

      
      : a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 73–80

  27. ^ ^a b Herms, Catherine Papp; McCullough, Deborah G.; Miller, Deborah L.; Bauer, Leah S.; Haack, Robert A. 1996. Laboratory rearing of Lycaeides melissa samuelis (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), an endangered butterfly in Michigan. The Great Lakes Entomologist. 29(2): 63–75
  28. ^ ^a b c Tolson, Peter J.; Magdich, Mitchell L.; Seidel, Terry; Haase, Gary A.; Fazio, Buddy. 1999. Return of a native. Endangered Species Bulletin. 24(3): 14–15
  29. ^ ^a b VanLuven, David Erik. 1994. Successful captive rearing of the federal endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis). In: Fralish, James S.; Anderson, Roger C.; Ebinger, John E.; Szafoni, Robert, eds. Living in the edge: 1994 proceedings of the North American conference on savannas and barrens; 1994 October 15–16; Normal, IL. [Chicago, IL]: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes
  30. ^ ^a b c d Grundel, Ralph; Pavlovic, Noel B.; Sulzman, Christina L (2000). “Nectar plant selection by the Karner blue 

      butterfly facts 

      (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) at the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore”. The American Midland Naturalist 144 (1): 1–10.doi:10.1674/0003-0031(2000)144[0001:NPSBTK]2.0.CO;2.ISSN 0003-0031. JSTOR 3083005. 

  31. ^ ^a b c d Swengel, Ann B. 1993. Observations of Karner blues and the barrens 

      butterfly facts 

      mmunity in Wisconsin 1987-1993. Report to National Biological Survey and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Baraboo, WI: North American

      butterfly facts

      Association. 81 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT

  32.  ^ Schellhorn, Nancy A.; Lane, Cynthia P.; Olson, Dawn M. (2005). “The co-occurrence of an introduced biological control agent (Coleoptera: Coccinella septempunctata) and an endangered

      butterfly facts

      (Lepidoptera: Lycaeides melissa samuelis)”. Journal of Insect Conservation 9: 41. doi:10.1007/s10841-004-4887-2. 

  33. ^ ^a b c Savignano, Dolores A. 1994. Benefits to Karner blue 

      butterfly facts

      
      larvae from association with ants. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue

      butterfly facts

      : a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 37–46

  34. ^ ^a b c Spoor, Ryk P.; Nickles, Elizabeth P. 1994. Fate of eggs of second brood Karner blue

      butterfly facts

      
      females. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue

      butterfly facts

      : a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 47–52

  35.  ^ Black, Scott Hoffman; Vaughan, D. Mace. 2005. Species Profile: Lycaeides melissa samuelis Nabokov, 1944: Karner blue (Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae: Polyommatini), In: Shepherd, Matthew D.; Vaughan, D. Mace; Black, Scott Hoffman, eds. Red list of pollinator insects of North America.
  36. ^ Christenson, Jimmy S.; Lentz, David R. 2001. Steps for success in rare species conservation: the Wisconsin statewide Karner Blue

      butterfly facts

      HCP. In: A monumental event: proceedings of the Society of American Foresters 2000 national convention; 2000 November 16–20; Washington, DC. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 337–346

  37.  ^ Brown, J. A.; Boyce, M. S. (1998). Environmental and Ecological Statistics 5: 81. doi:10.1023/A:1009620105039. 
  38. ^ King, Richard S. 2000. Evaluation of survey methods for the Karner blue

      butterfly facts

      on the Necedah Wildlife Management Area. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 88: 67–75

  39.  ^ Schweitzer, Dale F. 1994. Prioritizing Karner blue

      butterfly facts

      habitats for protection activities. In: Andow, David A.; Baker, Richard J.; Lane, Cynthia P., eds. Karner blue

      butterfly facts

      
      : a symbol of a vanishing landscape. Miscellaneous Publication 84-1994. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: 173–183

  40.  ^ King, Richard S. 1998. Dispersal of Karner blue butterflies (Lycaeides melissa samuelis Nabokov) at Necedah National Wildlife Refuge. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 86(1998): 101–110
  41. ^ King, Richard S (2003). “Habitat management for the Karner blue 

      butterfly facts

      
      (Lycaeides melissa samuelis): Evaluating the short-term consequences”. Ecological Restoration 21 (2): 101–106.doi:10.3368/er.21.2.101. 

  42. ^ Herms, Catherine Papp; McCullough, Deborah G.; Bauer, Leah S.; Haack, Robert A.; Miller, Deborah L.; Dubois, Normand R. 1997.Susceptibility of the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki used for gypsy moth suppression in Michigan. The Great Lakes Entomologist. 30(4): 125–141
  43. ^ Sucoff, Edward; Nichols, Thomas; Lu, Ehr-Yang. 2001. Herbicide effects on host plants of Karner blue butterfly and on butterfly development from egg to adult. Staff Paper Series, No. 151. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station; College of Natural Resources, Department of Forest Resources
  44. ^ Lycaeides melissa samuelis

  [edit]External links

  • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Midwest Region) Karner Blue Butterfly page
  • Karner blue butterfly This site from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources contains 

    butterfly conservation 

    information, identification tips, 

    butterfly plants 

    species that attract and nurture Karner blues, and much more.

  • NY DEC article on the Karner Blue
  • Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis)
  • Karner blue butterfly This site from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources contains 

    butterfly conservation 

    information, identification tips, 

    butterfly plants 

    species that attract and nurture Karner blues, and much more.

  • Rhapsody In Blue The Karner blue 

    butterfly facts

     makes a comeback

  • The Return of The Karner Blue in Ohio
  • Karner Blue for New York State Butterfly An effort to have the Karner Blue declared the official NY state 

    butterfly facts

     and how it will help prevent extinction of the species

  • [1] The most successful Karner blue 

    butterfly facts

     conservation effort is in Wisconsin.

   

   

List of Butterflies of North Americia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This list includes all of the common and scientific names of butterflies of North America north of Mexico.

Superfamily Papilionoidea

• Papilionidae-Swallowtails and Parnassians (40 species, 6 subspecies)
  • Parnassiinae-Parnassians (3 species, 3 subspecies)
  • Papilioninae-Swallowtails (37 species, 3 subspecies)
• Pieridae-Whites and Sulphurs (70 species, 12 subspecies)
  • Pierinae-Whites (29 species, 7 subspecies)
  • Coliadinae-Sulphurs (40 species, 5 subspecies)
  • Dismorphiinae-Mimic-Whites (1 species)
• Lycaenidae-Gossamer-wings (144 species, 41 subspecies)
  • Miletinae-Harvesters (1 species)
  • Lycaeninae-Coppers (16 species, 4 subspecies)
  • Theclinae-Hairstreaks (90 species, 16 subspecies)
  • Polyommatinae-Blues (37 species, 21 subspecies)
• Riodinidae-Metalmarks (28 species, 8 subspecies)
• Nymphalidae-Brush-footed Butterflies (233 species, 31 subspecies)
  • Libytheinae-Snouts (1 species)
  • Heliconiinae-Heliconians and Fritillaries (40 species, 11 subspecies)
  • Nymphalinae-True Brushfoots (76 species, 11 subspecies)
  • Limenitidinae-Admirals, Sisters and Others (37 species, 2 subspecies)
  • Charaxinae-Leafwings (8 species)
  • Apaturinae-Emperors (5 species, 1 subspecies)
  • Morphinae-Morphos (3 species)
  • Satyrinae-Satyrs (49 species, 6 subspecies)
  • Ithomiinae-Clearwings (4 species)
  • Danainae-Milkweed Butterflies (4 species)

[edit]Superfamily Hesperioidea

• Hesperiidae-Skippers (300 species, 13 subspecies)
  • Pyrrhopyginae-Firetips (1 species)
  • Pyrginae-Spread-wing Skippers (138 species, 6 subspecies)
  • Heteropterinae-Skipperlings (7 species)
  • Hesperiinae-Grass Skippers (141 species, 5 subspecies)
  • Megathyminae-Giant-Skippers (13 species, 2 subspecies)